Kigali, Rwanda. Creative Commons
A sea of change is beginning to strike Sub-Saharan Africa: economically, politically, and culturally, its immense potential is beginning to rise from the ashes of imperialism and the challenges that it has faced in the global ecosystem. Africa’s young and growing population, vast abundance of natural resources, and enterprising population make it the setting for much of the world’s future, especially concerning the environment and renewable energy. Yet, the continent’s continued vulnerability and inequality present uncertainty. This major shift is inevitable, but the question is whether it will occur on African terms, rather than in service of global powers like Russia and China, who have caught on to the change and reacted accordingly. The rest of the “developed” world seems to be lagging in the attention it pays to Africa’s growing development. But as the continent’s many nations strive to take advantage of this rapid development, one country boldly and proudly stands at the forefront.
Rwanda, the international aid darling. Rwanda, the careful result of reform and reconciliation. Rwanda, an African Miracle.
Rwanda’s success story following the brutal ethnic genocide in 1994 has been hailed across the world as a model for African development and governance. The capital, Kigali, has painstakingly transformed itself into a global city, dubbed the “cleanest city in Africa,” with its Convention Center being a crowning achievement atop the seat of national pride. Rwanda’s Vision 2020, masterminded by its longtime leader Paul Kagame in 2000, sought to refashion the nation as a “middle-income country” with a modern economy that could compete on an international scale. Most observers would agree that Vision 2020 was largely successful: the level of absolute poverty in Rwanda decreased dramatically [put in data here]. Rwanda now houses a robust service sector powered by tourism, finance, technological innovation, and its strong agrarian economy. Its parliament was the first to have a female majority, speaking to its renewed commitment to gender equality on a national level. Most importantly, at least on the surface, it reconciled its ethnic tensions and established a legitimate state that is safe and secure.
Rwanda’s success has made it a prized source for international aid, as it becomes the quintessential image of an African state primed for success in contrast to its under-developed peers. Accompanying Rwanda’s success, however, has been an internalized tightening of state power, with attempts to consolidate its regional assets. This can be seen through its support of the M23 insurgency group that is currently ravaging the neighboring Democratic Republic of the Congo (DRC). These actions threaten Rwanda’s hard-earned success while damaging its regional influence.
It is important to note that Africa is not a monolith; its near-infinitely varied people groups, histories, and societies make it impossible to essentialize despite their shared history of Western imperialism and economic struggle. But in many ways, the tale of Rwanda is a microcosm for the larger forces currently at play in the continent. As mentioned, Sub-Saharan Africa will see rapid urbanization and economic development because of its internal advances and greater moves toward integration on the regional, continental, and global scale. This development must prioritize long-term sustainability and African agency amid political turmoil and the lasting scars of colonialism and neocolonialism.
How the Colonial Past and Neocolonial Present Stifle Development
The long, dark legacy of European colonialism in Africa has posed a myriad of challenges to its attempts at overcoming said history. The colonialism following the Scramble for Africa in 1884 meant that European powers set up the infrastructure and systems for resource extraction but little else. More insidiously, however, European countries intentionally stoked ethnic cleavages to dissolve social cohesion, prevent political uprisings, and exercise a divide-and-conquer style of rule. This is seen predominantly in the Hutu and Tutsi ethnic groups in none other than Rwanda. Before European coercion, these groups lived mostly harmoniously. But, by provoking these tensions through favorable treatment towards Tutsis, the Belgians sowed the seeds of a longtime ethnic resentment that eventually led to their widespread blame for political instability and subsequent marginalization, and culminating in a disastrous genocide a century later. Even after the decolonisation movement began, the Europeans drew borders with no consideration of the unique social, religious, and ethnic groups throughout the continent (once again treating Africa as a monolith), further encouraging political tensions that would mar the political conditions of many African nations.
In terms of economic policy, the developed world has structured its economic interactions in such a way that Africa is continually exploited for its resources with little in return. The soil beneath African feet continues to enrich and bless the world with inconceivable abundance. The DRC, for example, holds 78% of the world’s cobalt stores–a critical mineral used in lithium batteries that power much of the world’s modern technology, from phones and computers to technology for defense and renewable energy. Nigeria is home to a large wealth of oil, which makes up much of its modern economy. Countries like Sierra Leone, Botswana, and South Africa constitute much of the world’s diamond market. The diamond market, in particular, can serve as a case study of how systems of African economic exploitation manifest and linger. The De Beers Mining Corporation, founded by Cecil Rhodes, almost single-handedly created the global demand for diamonds and drove their procurement from Sierra Leone and South Africa. The cost of exploitative labor and extraction practices is deeply exemplified in the immense poverty in Freetown or Johannesburg, where the poor toil away while De Beers profits lavishly from the global diamond trade.
Much of the focus on neocolonialism has been on debt-trap diplomacy and the controversy surrounding systems of international aid. While international aid to Africa is crucial and has been successful in places like Kenya or Uganda in combating the spread of diseases like AIDS or Guinea worm, systemic corruption means that much of that aid does not reach the people who need it. Aid can often be used as a form of soft power (by Western powers or otherwise), to generate international goodwill for the country providing it. For instance, China’s Belt and Road Initiative has worked to massively upscale Africa’s infrastructure through the construction of railroads, bridges, roads, and ports. Beijing has invested billions of dollars into these projects to expand its soft power. There is widespread criticism of BRI investment as it relates to growing Chinese influence and the narrative of “debt-trap diplomacy,” wherein China finances a project it knows the country cannot pay back and seizes control of said project as a return on investment. Generally, debt-trap diplomacy is a myth; these narratives miss details of the negotiations between countries and usually say investment will benefit African countries in the long term through the resulting economic investment. However, there are legitimate concerns with the BRI, including the lack of transparency on China’s part and the risk of actual (and not perceived) exploitation. All this being said, there are legitimate concerns with foreign investment in Africa and neocolonialism. Often, multinational organizations like the International Monetary Fund (IMF) and World Trade Center (WTO) will make loans to African economies, but with specific lending requirements that prompt African countries to implement neoliberal economic policies that favor the power players on the world market. This leaves African economies reliant on foreign aid and unable to achieve self-sufficiency under an African-led vision for the future.
Other Models of Development Worldwide
Given the many barriers around participation in the global economy laid out here, how are African countries supposed to overcome these seemingly insurmountable obstacles? We can look to other countries that exemplify the transition from poor, struggling economies to robust and successful ones. Perhaps the strongest historical example is the rise of the four Asian Tigers: South Korea, Taiwan, Hong Kong, and Singapore. These countries, now integral in the globalized world order for their importance to finance and technology, were able to transition from their largely agrarian, struggling post-World War II societies into highly urbanized and educated service economies. A combination of encouragement of popular education and a skilled labor force to serve in new sectors, alongside clever investment in finance and technology, allowed for a major decrease in poverty rates and prosperity in economics, governance, and culture, taking place in only one or two generations. Rapid development has been enhanced by strong government involvement in economic and social policies (especially education and investment in development companies) and a more open market fit for the globalized world. The development of Botswana and the aforementioned Rwanda, two African success stories, have followed similar trajectories. Both nations combined heavy government involvement, an emphasis on education and the stemming of brain drain (the loss of skilled professionals from developing countries to developed countries), a scaling-up of the native industries regarding agriculture and mining, and clever investment in the interest of developing a service economy to overcome and generate wealth. Yet, some issues should be noted with this development: these economic windfalls are often distributed unequally. This is a trait shared both among the Asian Tigers and nations like Rwanda, Botswana, and Nigeria. While the absolute level of poverty decreases, wealth is not enjoyed by the nation at large. Instead, it is concentrated among the upper classes, the political elite, and national oligarchs. This is a challenge that must be addressed through better social policies aimed at decreasing corruption and benefiting the people.
Intergovernmental Organizations and Greater Economic Integration
Sub-Saharan Africa has already been moving toward the political and economic integration between states that fosters development. The Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS) have pursued policies including a shared currency (the West African Franc), free movement between states, and a peacekeeping force, cleverly adapting policies found in other intergovernmental organizations (IGOs) like the European Union (EU). The East African Community (EAC), in a similar fashion, has promoted free trade and an eventual group currency. The African Union (AU) serves as a binding continental force that asserts political and economic priorities. Through organizations like BRICS (comprising Brazil, Russia, India, China, South Africa, and expanding into other countries in Africa, the Middle East, and South America) or the African Development Bank, African countries are forming strategic relationships on the world stage. These are all positive efforts that, if thoroughly continued, will result in greater potential for African development.
It is important to note, however, that political and social instability threaten to undermine the strides noted here. Urgent flare-ups of terrorism, perpetrated by groups like Al-Shabaab in Somalia and Boko Haram in Nigeria, can threaten the lives and livelihoods of communities while discouraging foreign investment and creating greater security risk. The influence of repressive authoritarian governments threatens IGOs as seen by the authoritarian military leaders in Burkina Faso, Niger, and Mali withdrawing their states from ECOWAS, causing the bloc to lose half of its landmass. Conflicts over land and resources, as can be seen in the Nile River Dam conflict between Ethiopia and Egypt, discourage essential economic cooperation. Corruption is a pervasive parasite that siphons off the monetary earnings and hard work of the African people. The African dream is within reach, but it will take a stringent effort, transparency, and security of African countries to attain and maintain.
The Way Forward
The future of African development is promising but uncertain. We have seen the success stories, but there is still much ground to cover for the dream to translate to reality. Attention must be paid to nourishing, educating, and honing the skills and passions of the African population. This entails a wide range of actions, from preventing the spread of disease and direct or structural violence to governments providing social services and robust and accessible K-12 and higher education. Attracting diaspora communities abroad through incentives could help reverse the effects of brain drain and bring experts to boost advancements in finance, tech, medicine, or scholarly research. The African people of today must be able to fulfill roles that are necessary to create the Africa of tomorrow. The admirable pursuit of regional integration already shown by states in East and West Africa should continue in a manner similar to the European Union. Moreover, governments must direct international aid and non-governmental organizations towards practical and efficient uses of money and resources. With all of this being said, the world must also respond in kind. Their assistance and investment should not transform into another iteration of exploitation but rather should inhabit mutual collaboration that stresses the agency of African countries. After all, given Africa’s growing importance to the world’s needs, it would be better for countries to work with Africans in a way that they would appreciate and thus reinforce. Ultimately, it will be up to the African people to sail through this sea of change into a better future.